Lakalaka: Tonga’s National Dance Tradition
Introduction
‘Dancing does not involve the hands and legs alone; rather it involves the mind, the heart and the soul. And this is the beauty of it all’. This is a quote that resonates especially with the dance of Lakalaka. Often regarded as the national dance of Tonga, the Lakalaka is a grand group dance blending choreography, oratory, and choral music. This cultural tradition is practiced by communities throughout the Tongan islands and features prominently at important events such as royal coronations, the king’s birthday celebrations, and church openings. The term lakalaka literally means “to step briskly or carefully” in the Tongan language, reflecting the careful, synchronized stepping that dancers perform. A typical Lakalaka involves large ensembles of performers – sometimes several hundred people – arranged in rows and moving in unison to poetic lyrics and harmonized singing. In recognition of its cultural significance, the Lakalaka was inscribed in 2008 on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, underscoring its status as a “masterpiece” of Tongan heritage on the world stage.
Origins
The roots of the Lakalaka can be traced to an older Tongan dance form called the me’elaufola. Early European visitors described the me’elaufola (meaning “outstretched arms dance”) as a standing group dance with extended arm gestures. However, in the 19th century, Christian missionaries in Tonga frowned upon many traditional dances, viewing them as “heathen” practices. King Tāufaʻāhau Tupou I’s legal code of 1850 outright forbade certain indigenous dances. Despite this prohibition, reports suggest that large dance festivals continued in some form, though the more risque night dances (pōmeʻe) were abandoned under missionary influence.
The dance that we now know as the Lakalaka emerged toward the end of the 19th century. Oral history credits its revival to a high chief named Tukuʻaho (1858–1897) of Tatakamotonga, who was also a Methodist preacher. Rather than creating an entirely new dance, Tukuʻaho reintroduced the classic group dance in a manner acceptable to the church authorities. He reportedly incorporated missionary-approved tunes (such as nursery rhymes) and added simple gestures and steps, effectively sanitizing the traditional form. Community members embraced this revitalized dance and even brought their own ideas, many of which resembled the old me’elaufola that had never been completely forgotten. In this way, a new iteration of the Lakalaka was born that preserved much of its original character while satisfying Christian moral expectations of the time.
Throughout the 20th century, the Tongan royal family took a special interest in preserving and promoting the Lakalaka. In particular, Queen Sālote Tupou III (who reigned 1918–1965) was an avid patron and composer of Lakalaka poetry. Queen Sālote herself composed numerous Lakalaka lyrics – such as “Takafalu,” “Nailasikau,” and “Sāngone” – which became famous pieces performed on state occasions. Under her patronage and that of other Tongan monarchs, the art form flourished and expanded in repertoire during the mid-20th century. Thanks to this continuous royal support and community transmission, the Lakalaka underwent a renaissance, firmly cementing its place in Tonga’s national identity.
Photo: UNESCO Sound and Collections: Lakalaka, Sung Speeches with Choreographed Movements
Performance and choreography
A Lakalaka performance is an impressive spectacle of synchronized movement and sound. Dancers stand in rows – often multiple rows deep – with men traditionally on the right side and women on the left (as viewed by the audience). Unlike many dances, the performers usually remain in their positions rather than moving around the stage; “lakalaka” implies stepping in place deliberately. The men and women execute distinct movements that complement each other. Men’s movements tend to be bold and energetic – they stand upright and perform vigorous arm gestures, and may at times turn around or even lower themselves briefly towards the ground as the dance intensifies. In contrast, the women’s movements are characterized by grace and restraint – they take small steps side-to-side and employ gentle, flowing motions of the hands and arms. Despite these differences, both groups are highly coordinated, moving as one to interpret the meaning of the song through symbolic gestures. Every motion – from a pointed finger to a sweeping arm – is carefully aligned with the lyrics being sung, in the allusive storytelling style typical of Tongan dance.
The Lakalaka is essentially a sung dance – the dancers themselves sing the accompanying song, and there is little or no instrumental music during the performance. A chorus group often stands behind the dancers to support the harmonies and strengthen the vocal volume. The singing is performed in rich polyphony (multiple independent vocal parts) that creates a powerful, layered sound across the performance space. Rhythmic timing is maintained through hand claps and other body percussion from the performers, rather than by melodic instruments. The lyrics being sung are poetic verses composed specifically for the occasion. A designated dance composer and choreographer, known as the punake, is the creative force behind each Lakalaka. The punake combines the roles of poet, composer, and director – crafting original lyrics (or adapting traditional texts), setting them to music, and designing choreography to match. Through this integration of arts, the Lakalaka blends music, dance, and poetry into a unified performance.
A full Lakalaka performance can last around 20 to 30 minutes. It typically begins with a solemn introduction, or fakatapu, which is a formal salutation. In the opening stanza, the dancers and chorus sing verses offering homage to God and honor to the King and high chiefs in attendance. After this respectful prologue, the dance proper commences. The tempo and energy start off controlled and measured, then gradually build over successive verses. Dancers initially move with restrained grace, but as the performance progresses, their movements grow more animated and the clapping and singing intensify. Toward the finale, the Lakalaka reaches a peak of excitement – the arm gestures become faster and the men might even break into vigorous shouts – drawing enthusiasm from both performers and spectators.
Many Lakalaka include a special interlude called the sipa. The sipa is a brief departure from the main choreography and melody, marked by a unique stanza with different lyrics and tune. During the sipa segment, the formation itself shifts: men and women dancers weave past one another and temporarily swap sides – men moving toward the left end and women toward the right – effectively crisscrossing the lines. This maneuver is visually striking, as two long rows of dancers pass through each other in synchrony. Once the sipa concludes, the dancers return to their original positions to continue with the regular sequence of the Lakalaka. Incorporating such variations keeps the audience engaged throughout the half-hour performance. By the end, the combination of hundreds of voices singing in harmony and the precise, rhythmic movements of the dancers offers a spectacular display of Tongan culture.
What about its social significance?
Tongan society is traditionally very hierarchical, and this is reflected in the way Lakalaka performances are organized. The dance is typically performed as a tribute to honor a particular dignitary or event, such as a monarch or high chief’s celebration. Lakalaka are most famously performed at formal occasions of state and community. They have been a highlight of events like the coronation of the Tongan king, anniversaries of the Tongan constitution, royal birthdays, and church dedications. During these ceremonies, the content of the Lakalaka’s lyrics often praises the leadership and heritage of the Tongan people, essentially turning the dance into a live poetic oration in honor of the event.
Within a Lakalaka troupe, certain positions are reserved for performers of high status. The most prestigious roles are the vāhenga, the central male and female positions at the middle of the front row. These spots are often offered to individuals of noble rank – for example, a prince or princess may be invited to stand as vāhenga if they are participating in the performance. In many cases, one of the two vāhenga (either the male or female) will be the highest-ranking person present apart from the honoree, and that person may wear a distinctive costume to set them apart. The far ends of the front row (the fakapotu positions) are likewise reserved for people of high rank in the community, and the spots immediately beside the vāhenga (known as tāʻofi vāhenga) are given to the next most senior individuals. This careful arrangement by status is a way of paying respect: it visually signifies that the community’s most important members are leading the tribute.
There is also an important protocol in deciding who can perform when royalty are involved. In Tonga’s culture of respect, a person should not perform a dance that honors someone of lower rank than themselves. This means if a Lakalaka is being performed in honor of the King, any prince, princess or noble of higher rank than the intended honoree is expected not to dance (so as not to upstage the tribute). Consequently, a reigning King or Queen never takes part as a dancer in Lakalaka – they are always the recipients of the honor, sitting in state to watch, rather than participants. The dance is fundamentally a homage to the chiefs and royalty, so the performers must be of equal or lower rank than the figure being honored. This protocol underscores the Lakalaka’s role in reaffirming social order and respect. The opening fakatapu verses, which pay tribute to God and the monarchy, further emphasize that the performance is a formal act of respect as much as it is entertainment.
The Lakalaka costumes
Costuming in the Lakalaka is elaborate and deeply rooted in Tongan tradition. Performers are dressed in formal Tongan attire, typically in uniform for a neat, dignified appearance. Men and women often wear a decorated skirt wrap called a tupenu (similar to a sarong or cloth wrap) along with a tailored top (white or black shirts for men, and matching blouses for women). Over the tupenu, dancers don a woven mat around the waist known as the taʻovala, which is an emblem of Tongan formality and respect. The taʻovala is usually secured by a sash or rope called a kafa. These elements – the tupenu, taʻovala, and kafa belt – constitute the foundational dress, signifying that the performers are properly attired for a ceremonial presentation.
In addition, dancers adorn themselves with ornamental accessories that add color and movement to the performance. Both men and women often wear a sisi, which is a girdle of leaves and fragrant flowers, tied around the waist over the mat. Alternatively, some may wear a manafau, a type of ornamental grass skirt (now usually made from dried hibiscus fibers) that sways with movement. These adornments produce a pleasant rustling sound and a visually captivating effect as the lines of dancers move their hips in unison. Performers also commonly wear floral garlands around their necks, as well as bracelets and anklets of woven leaves or flowers, highlighting each gesture with a flash of green or color. The fragrance of the natural garlands and leaves adds an extra sensory dimension to the occasion.
A particularly important accessory in the Lakalaka is the tekiteki, a decorative tuft of feathers worn in the hair. Women typically wear one or two upright feathers attached to a comb or stick that is placed in their bun or hairstyle, while men’s tekiteki usually take the form of a feather tuft that hangs or bobs when they move. The tekiteki accentuates the dancer’s head movements. During the dance, performers execute subtle teki head nods in time with the music – a traditional motion that is greatly admired. The slight bobbing of the head causes the feathers to flutter, drawing the audience’s eye to the performer’s precise timing and control. A well-executed teki (head nod) is considered one of the marks of an accomplished dancer in Tongan culture. Thus, the costumes and adornments of the Lakalaka are not only visually striking, but also imbued with cultural meaning. They help transform the performers into a unified tableau that reflects Tongan values of respect, beauty, and harmony with nature.
Tongan Lakalaka photographed at ASB polyfest.
Legacy
For over a century, the Lakalaka has been a living tradition passed down through generations, but it is not without challenges. In recent decades, the frequency of Lakalaka performances in Tonga has diminished compared to earlier times. Whereas every village once might have prepared a Lakalaka for major community events, today such large-scale performances occur more rarely. One reason noted by cultural observers is that fewer new Lakalaka compositions are being created in the modern era. Many younger punake (dance poets/composers) tend to reuse the classic Lakalaka songs and choreography from the existing repertoire rather than composing entirely new pieces. While these beloved traditional compositions are still powerful, the lack of new works raises concerns about the long-term vitality of the art form. The continued creativity of punake is vital to keep the Lakalaka relevant for younger generations, allowing the dance to address contemporary themes and keep audiences engaged.
Recognizing the cultural value of the Lakalaka and the need to safeguard it, UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) formally recognized the Lakalaka in 2003 and 2008. It was first proclaimed in 2003 as one of the “Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity,” and subsequently inscribed on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Representative List in 2008. This international recognition has helped raise awareness about the importance of preserving Lakalaka. It also encourages support for the transmission of the dance to future generations – for example, through cultural programs in schools and communities, documentation of performances, and national festivals. The Tongan government and cultural organizations periodically organize events and workshops that encourage young people to learn traditional dances like the Lakalaka. Moreover, the royal family of Tonga continues to patronize cultural performances, ensuring that the Lakalaka remains a highlight of national celebrations. All of these efforts contribute to keeping the practice alive and adapting it to modern contexts, even as Tonga changes in the 21st century.
Lakalaka in New Zealand and the diaspora
Outside of Tonga, the Lakalaka has been carried to other countries by the Tongan diaspora, most notably to New Zealand, which has a large Tongan community. Following the Second World War, significant numbers of Tongans migrated to New Zealand, bringing their language, faith, and cultural traditions – including dance – with them. In the early years of Pacific Island immigration, performances of dances like the Lakalaka took place primarily in informal settings: church halls, community gatherings, and family events where Tongans maintained their ties to their homeland culture. By the late 20th century, these cultural expressions had grown more visible in New Zealand’s public sphere. The Pacific Island dance community in New Zealand became large and active, especially in urban centers like Auckland. Tongan dance groups formed to perform at multicultural events, and their performances attracted not only Tongan audiences but also wider New Zealand society, fostering cross-cultural appreciation.
In modern New Zealand, there are prominent annual festivals where one can regularly see Lakalaka performances. Auckland’s Pasifika Festival, established in 1992, is one such event. It is the largest Pacific Islands cultural festival in the world, drawing tens of thousands of visitors each year. At Pasifika, the festival grounds are divided into “villages” for different island nations, and the Tongan village stage often features traditional Lakalaka performances among its cultural showcases. Another major event is the ASB Polyfest (Auckland Secondary Schools Māori and Pacific Islands Festival), which is the world’s largest Polynesian dance competition for youth. Polyfest includes a dedicated Tongan stage where high school groups of Tongan students perform traditional dances in competition. Each year, numerous Tongan youth in New Zealand learn and perform the Lakalaka as part of these school cultural groups. For example, Tongan groups from Auckland schools have presented Lakalaka items at Polyfest, complete with full traditional costumes and chants, earning enthusiastic responses from crowds. These performances abroad mirror the structure and spirit of the Lakalaka in Tonga, demonstrating how well the art form can be maintained outside its native context.
The involvement of young New Zealand–born Tongans in performing Lakalaka has significant implications for cultural preservation. It helps ensure that the knowledge of the dance – the lyrics, the movements, the etiquette – is transmitted to the next generation, even far from the islands of Tonga. In some cases, new Lakalaka compositions have even been created within the New Zealand Tongan community for competitions and special events, showing that the punake tradition of composing and choreographing is alive in the diaspora as well. At the same time, classic Lakalaka songs (including those composed by Queen Sālote and other past masters) are also performed in New Zealand, linking the diaspora back to the cultural treasures of the homeland.
Bibliography
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage: “Lakalaka, dances and sung speeches of Tonga.” UNESCO Culture Sector. Available at: https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/lakalaka-dances-and-sung-speeches-of-tonga-00072
Tonga Tourism – People & Culture: “Tongan Dance” (section on Lakalaka). Tonga Tourism Official Website. Available at: https://www.tongatourism.travel/discover/people-and-culture/tongan-dance
Te Ara – Encyclopedia of NZ: “Cultural dance: Pacific dance.” Available at: https://teara.govt.nz/en/cultural-dance/page-2
Auckland Libraries – Kura Heritage Collections: “Tongan Lakalaka dance, ASB Polyfest (2015).” Image and description, Auckland Libraries Heritage Collections (via Digital Pasifik). Available at: https://digitalpasifik.org/items/75365